Chapter 2 literature review outline

Chapter 2 literature review outline

CHAPTER 19 2 Introduction & Literature Review. A. common misconception about phenomenological research is that the researcher begins the research without reviewing lit-erature. Concerns about literature reviews span several topics with regard to the integrity of Chapter 2 Outline – Literature Review Tsar Nicholas was an amazing leader. All over his administration, he aimed to give the Russians the best leadership to lead to great development. He, therefore, brought some remarkable developments in Russia, one being economic growth. Many industries were set up during his reign that brought great industrialization in the region CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE. Download. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE. Aayush Verma. extensive questioning were, colour and appearance of wine. Most of the consumers preferred white wine to red. () asked 32 the consumers to spontaneously outline their understanding of the concept of organic products. Response tends to be focused on

Chapter 2 Literature Review Outline

Not a MyNAP member yet? Register for a free account to start saving and receiving special member only perks. Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter 2 literature review outline, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Chapter 2 literature review outline 2.

In addition, the review evaluates the characterization of noise exposure in these studies; considers studies of classroom acoustics; describes current guidelines for the acoustical design of children’s classrooms; and identifies current gaps in knowledge and future research priorities.

This review examines non-auditory effects chapter 2 literature review outline noise exposure: that is effects on human health which are not the direct result of sound energy. Non-auditory effects are less well established and accepted than the auditory effects of noise which are the direct result of sound energy, such as hearing loss. The review focuses on the non-auditory effect of noise on children’s cognition and learning, as well as briefly summarizing other non-auditory effects on children’s health.

As part of the literature review a total of key documents were identified. These have been reviewed and an annotated bibliography prepared with abstracts. The annotated bibliography is presented in Appendix A to this report. In addition, chapter 2 literature review outline, a document catalog has been developed in tabular form identifying key elements of each document, namely: Title, Date, Country, Location, Noise source, Schools, Classrooms, Classes, Students, School grades, Student performance measure, Noise measure, Research method, Data collection method, Analytical method, Citation, Finding, Suggested criteria, Notes.

This document is presented in Appendix B. Scope of the Review This literature review summarizes the field of noise effects on children’s cognitive performance and learning, chapter 2 literature review outline the evidence for effects of noise on children’s learning from research conducted over the past few decades, as well as recent developments in the field. This is a narrative review, focusing on key studies in the field. The literature has been identified from searches of electronic databases including PubMed, IngentaConnect, Science Direct, Educational Resource Information Centre, Google Scholar, and the Acoustical Society of America Digital Library, chapter 2 literature review outline, as well as through searches of reference lists of papers, and searches of specific journals including ‘Noise and Health’ and the ‘Journal of the Acoustical Society of America’.

This strategy has been supplemented by the research teams’ knowledge of existing reports and publications. The literature chapter 2 literature review outline predominantly drawn from Europe and the USA, with a focus on USA-relevant publications, where possible, chapter 2 literature review outline.

The review also focuses on studies of aircraft noise exposure, where possible, but does draw on findings of other noise sources such as road traffic noise, where the evidence may be relevant for this project. For convenience, documents referred to in the review are listed at the end of this section.

This review considers the characterization of noise exposure in these studies; examines the findings of epidemiological studies which focus on chronic rather than acute noise exposure; considers studies of classroom acoustics; reviews current guidelines for the acoustical design of children’s classrooms; and concludes by identifying current gaps in knowledge and future research priorities.

Article I. Background to the Research Field The direct effect of sound energy on human hearing is well established and accepted Babisch, ; Kryter, Auditory impairments are typically seen in chapter 2 literature review outline industrial occupations, hence protective legislation requiring hearing protectors to be worn. In contrast, non-auditory effects of noise on human health are not the direct result of sound energy.

Instead these effects are the result of noise as a general stressor: thus the use of the term noise not sound: noise is unwanted sound. The non-auditory effects of noise are less well established and accepted than auditory effects. This review focuses on the non-auditory effect of noise on children’s cognition and learning. The effect of environmental noise exposure on children’s cognitive performance and learning has been researched since the early s.

Typically, in more recent years, the effect of chronic noise exposure on children’s cognition has been examined by methodologically robust epidemiological studies, while the effect of acute noise exposure has been examined in experimental, laboratory studies.

It has been suggested that children may be especially vulnerable to effects of environmental noise as they may have less cognitive capacity to understand and anticipate environmental stressors, as well as a lack of developed coping repertoires Stansfeld, Haines and Brown, Exposure during critical periods of learning at school could potentially impair development and have a lifelong effect on educational attainment.

Overall, evidence for the effects of noise on children’s cognition has strengthened in recent years. There is increasing synthesis between epidemiological studies, with over twenty studies having shown detrimental effects of noise on children’s memory and reading Evans and Hygge, Most research has been carried out in primary school children aged 5 to 12 years.

This is seen as a critical learning acquisition period for children in which future learning patterns are established. Studies have established that children exposed to noise at school experience some cognitive impairments, compared with children not exposed to noise: however, these effects are not uniform across all cognitive tasks Cohen, Evans, Stokols, et al, ; Evans and Lepore, ; Evans, Kielwer and Martin, Tasks which involve central processing and language comprehension, such as reading, problem solving and memory appear to be most affected by exposure to noise Cohen, Evans, Stokols, et al, ; Evans and Lepore, ; Evans, Hygge and Bullinger, ; Hygge, These are all tasks with high processing demands and the effect of environmental stressors on cognitive tasks with high processing demands is widely accepted in the environmental stress literature Cohen, Evans, Stokols, et al, ; Smith, Recent years have seen several methodological advancements in the field including the use of larger epidemiological community samples and better characterization of noise measurement.

Evidence from longitudinal studies is beginning to emerge, and studies have started to examine exposure-effect relationships, to identify thresholds for noise effects on health and cognition which can be used to inform guidelines for noise exposure. There has also been a better assessment of confounding factors: noise exposure and cognition are often confounded by socioeconomic position; individuals living in poorer social circumstances are more likely to have poorer cognitive abilities, as well as be exposed to noise.

Therefore, measures of socioeconomic position need to be taken into account when examining associations between noise exposure and health, chapter 2 literature review outline.

Article II. The Assessment of Noise Exposure Studies of noise effects on children’s cognition typically use established metrics of external noise chapter 2 literature review outline, which indicate the average sound pressure for a specified period using dBA as the measurement unit dBA is the unit of A-weighted sound pressure level where Chapter 2 literature review outline weighted means that the sound pressure levels in various frequency bands across the audible range have been chapter 2 literature review outline in accordance with differences in hearing sensitivity at different frequencies.

Metrics typically employed are Leq16 and Lday which indicate noise exposure over a 16 hour daytime period usually 7ampm; Lnight which indicates noise exposure at night 11pm- 7am ; and Ldn which combines the day and night measures to indicate average noise exposure over the 24 hour period, with a 10dB penalty added to the nighttime noise measure.

In contemporary studies these metrics are usually modeled using standard airport noise modeling systems, using Geographical Information Systems to present the data, while older studies as well as some contemporary studies measure noise exposure in the community, which can be less reliable if measurements cover short time-periods.

A few recent studies have also examined exposure to maximum noise levels e. Lmaxas in pathophysiological terms it is not known whether the overall ‘dose’ of noise exposure is important in determining effects on children’s cognition or whether peak sound pressure events or the number of noise events might be important.

This issue is of increasing importance given that the number of noise events for aircraft and road traffic noise are increasing, while noise emission levels per event are falling. In the community, people are often exposed to sounds from more than one source. However, to date, studies tend to focus upon only one type of exposure such as road traffic or aircraft noise exposure, chapter 2 literature review outline.

Studies that have examined exposure to more than one source Lercher, Evans and Meis, have not been able to attribute cognitive effects to specific noise sources within the environment, limiting their relevance for policy formation or noise abatement. Studies of the non-auditory effects of noise exposure typically use the term ‘noise’ to refer to the individual’s exposure to sound.

The term noise is used, regardless of whether the exposure is high or low: lower levels in particular may strictly be chapter 2 literature review outline described using the term sound, and the term noise implies that the sound exposure is unwanted and that it is an environmental stressor. This tradition is maintained throughout this literature review, chapter 2 literature review outline.

Article III. The Effects of Noise Exposure on Children’s Learning 2. Background There is increasing synthesis between epidemiological studies, with many studies having shown detrimental effects of noise on children’s memory and reading Evans and Hygge, While a chapter 2 literature review outline study suggests that children may not be more susceptible to environmental noise effects on cognitive performance than adults Boman, Enmarker and Hygge,studies have established that children exposed to noise at school experience some cognitive impairments, compared with children not exposed to noise.

Overall, children exposed to chronic environmental noise have been found to have poorer auditory discrimination and speech perception Cohen, Evans, Krantz, et al, ; Cohen, Evans, Stokols, et al, ; Cohen, Glass and Singer, ; Evans and Maxwell, ; Moch-Sibony, : as well as poorer memory Evans and Lepore, chapter 2 literature review outline, ; Hygge, ; Hygge, Evans and Bullinger, ; Stansfeld, Berglund, Clark, et al, : deficits in sustained attention and visual attention Hambrick-Dixon, ; Hambrick-Dixon, ; Moch-Sibony, ; Muller, Chapter 2 literature review outline, Jilg, et al, ; Sanz, Garcia and Garcia, : and poorer reading ability and school performance on national standardized tests Bronzaft, ; Bronzaft and McCarthy, ; Clark, Martin, van Kempen, et al, ; Cohen, Glass and Singer, ; Eagan, Anderson, Nicholas, et al, ; Evans, Hygge and Bullinger, ; Evans and Maxwell, ; Green, Pasternack and Shore, ; Haines, chapter 2 literature review outline, Stansfeld, Brentnall, et al, ; Haines, Stansfeld, Head, et al, ; Haines, Stansfeld, Job, et al, a; Lukas, DuPree and Swing, The following section discusses the historical development of the research field, highlighting seminal studies in the field and synthesizing the knowledge base.

Epidemiological Studies a 2. The Early Studies, chapter 2 literature review outline. This field of research in children was first investigated by Cohen and colleagues who carried out a naturalistic field study of elementary school children living in four floor apartment buildings located near an expressway Cohen, Glass and Singer, The sample of 73 children were tested for auditory discrimination and reading achievement.

Children living on lower floors of the storey buildings i. exposed to higher road traffic noise levels showed greater impairment of auditory discrimination and reading achievement than children living in higher-floor apartments. Using a similar naturalistic paradigm Bronzaft and Chapter 2 literature review outline Bronzaft and McCarthy, compared reading scores of elementary school children who were taught in classrooms on the noisy side of a school near a railway line with the scores of the school children in classrooms on the quiet side of the same school, chapter 2 literature review outline.

Children on the noisy side of the school building had poorer performance on the school achievement tests than those taught in classrooms on the quiet side of the school. The mean reading age of children in the classrooms on the noisy side of the school was 3 to 4 months behind the children in the low noise-exposed classrooms.

The strength of this study is that the results cannot be attributed to self-selection of children into one school rather than another, a methodological problem found in many field studies.

Neither could the results be explained by the selection of more able children into quieter classrooms, as children were not assigned in any systematic manner to classrooms on the noisy or quiet side of the school. The first study to combine both cross-sectional and longitudinal analysis was a naturalistic study around Los Angeles Airport Cohen, chapter 2 literature review outline, Evans, Krantz, et al, ; Cohen, chapter 2 literature review outline, Evans, Krantz, et al, This study found impaired performance on difficult cognitive tasks in primary school children aged years.

There was also an effect on motivation: after experiencing success or failure on a task, children exposed to chronic aircraft noise were less likely to solve a difficult puzzle and were more likely to give up.

At follow-up one year later Cohen, Evans, Krantz, et al, the finding that noise-exposed children were chapter 2 literature review outline likely to solve a difficult puzzle was replicated but the finding that the same children chapter 2 literature review outline more likely to give up on a difficult puzzle was not.

The first exposure-effect study was carried out by Green, et al. Green, chapter 2 literature review outline, Pasternack and Shore, in New York, relating noise exposure scores based on noise exposure forecast contours for New York City Airports and relating that to the percentage of students reading below grade level between and The demonstration of exposure-effect relationships is an important element in confirming causal associations between noise and cognitive and health outcomes.

The percent of students reading below grade level in each grade was regressed on noise exposure for each of the years and for all 5 years combined. Social disadvantage was adjusted for in terms of the percent eligible for free lunch programmes, along with adjustment for ethnic group, absentee admissions and departure rates, pupil-teacher ratio and teacher experience, chapter 2 literature review outline.

The partial regression coefficients for the noise scale variables were all positive and were statistically significant at the 0. A summary coefficient, with appropriate weighting, of 0. The authors described the data as largely compatible with a linear dose-response relationship between noise exposure and percent reading below grade level.

The mean difference in the percent reading one or more years below grade level in the noisy schools, compared to the quietest schools, was 3. There are several limitations to this study, the crudeness of the noise exposure scale, the possibility that pupils transfer from schools across noise zones and therefore, have a varied history of noise exposure, the crudeness of the variables used to assess confounding and the aggregate nature of the percentage reading below grade level outcome which fails to take into account individual differences in reading ability.

Nevertheless, these results are striking and it could be argued that were the methodological errors soluble, the size of the effect would be likely to be larger, rather than smaller. This study was very much ahead of its time and another exposure-effect study was not conducted until the RANCH study in the early ’s Stansfeld, Berglund, Clark, et al, chapter 2 literature review outline, The Heathrow Studies.

A repeated measures field study carried out around Heathrow airport in London, partially confirmed the findings of Cohen et al’s ; study of Los Angeles airport. Children tested at baseline were re-tested a year later at follow-up Haines, Stansfeld, chapter 2 literature review outline, Job, et al, b.

The results indicated that chronic exposure to aircraft noise was associated with impaired reading comprehension and sustained attention after adjustment for age, main language spoken at home and household deprivation Haines, Stansfeld, Job, et al, a. The within subjects analysis at follow-up indicated that children’s development in reading comprehension may be adversely affected by chronic aircraft noise exposure Haines, Stansfeld, Job, et al, b. This study was followed by a larger study - The West London Schools Study Haines, Stansfeld, Brentnall, et al, which compared the cognitive performance and stress responses of children in ten high-noise schools with that of children in ten matched control schools.

The results indicated that children in the noise-exposed schools experienced greater annoyance and had poorer reading performance on the difficult items of a national standardized reading test. A further multi-level modeling study of national standardized test scores SATs carried out around Heathrow airport Haines, Stansfeld, Head, et al,examined test scores for 11, year-old children in relation to aircraft noise exposure contours for their school.

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CHAPTER 2 – REVIEW OF LITERATURE (OUTLINE) | nadiahbegum

7/4/ · The Literature Review chapter will offer an expanded version of all areas of the theoretical framework from the first chapter. These are topics that are unique to your dissertation, though some universities combine chapters one and two into a single introduction chapter. Topics should be based on the constructs included in the purpose of the study, research questions, hypotheses, as [ ] 4/17/ · CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE (OUTLINE) Introdcution Reading Comprehension Gender in relation to Reading Comprehension Topic Familiarity in relation to Reading Comprehension Relationship between Gender and Topic Familiarity in relation to Reading Comprehension Related Studies Conclusion 11/6/ · A literature review outline aims at giving a new interpretation of old materials or brings together old and new interpretations of these materials. Besides, it may opt to trace the intellectual advancement of a particular field by citing major debates or influenced by the situation, a literature review can evaluate and advise the reader on the